Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 8

Do you believe in ghosts?

What an interesting question. It’s one we can answer in a number of different ways, and whatever answer we provide will offer an insight into the way we think and view the world.

How would I answer the question? I would respond as I often do, by saying: “It depends.” What do we mean by the word “ghost?” For some people, a ghost is defined as the wandering soul of a deceased person. For others, a ghost is simply a spirit, or a spiritual entity. Depending how deeply you wish to delve into this or that folklore, this or that mythology, you’ll come across a wide variety of ideas on the subject – many of which contradict each other. 

Are ghosts good? Evil? Friendly? Antagonistic? Tricksters? Misunderstood? Happy? Sad? Many different ideas exist about them, and these ideas often come from a particular religion or world view.

We’re in a series on the polytheism context clue. We’ve taken some time to look at a few of the major pantheons worshipped by the various people groups surrounding ancient Israel. That first form of “Biblical polytheism” simply means that it appears in the Bible. Feel free to go back and review some of the earlier posts in this series if you’d like to know more about that.

A reasonable question then is whether there are any additional forms of Biblical polytheism, and if so, what do they look like? In my opinion, there is indeed a second form of Biblical polytheism, and it is this second form which evaluates and informs our understanding of the unseen realms. It focuses on the role(s) of angels, demons, powers, principalities, rulers of darkness, spiritual forces of wickedness in the heavenly places (Eph. 6:12), and so on.

One of the great blunders in modern theology comes about when we forget that the Bible wasn’t originally written in 21st century English, but rather in ancient Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. Why does that matter? It matters because our languages use different words to describe different things, and in the case of ancient Hebrew (and to a lesser extent, ancient Greek), they had far fewer words to work with than we do now. For example, ancient Hebrew had somewhere around 6,500 words (estimates vary). Ancient Greek had quite a few more, ranging around 100,000 – 200,000 words depending on your sources and estimates. Modern English, by comparison is estimated to have between 250,000 and 1,000,000 words, although only about 170,000 are in common use according to the Oxford English Dictionary.

The reason I mention this is to draw attention to the fact that the ancient Hebrew (the primary language of the OT) had far fewer words to work with than modern English. That means that while we might have a dozen, or even a hundred similar words to a describe a thing, oftentimes there would be one or maybe two words in Hebrew, which could mean all of those different things.

Ghost holding a cat stuck on a tree branch in a park

When it comes to certain words like “spirit,” “ghost,” “god,” or “angel,” we have to understand that these words meant many different things in Hebrew. For instance, the OT word for “spirit” is most often “ruach.” But ruach also means “wind,” “breath,” “exhalation,” or figuratively “life,” “anger,” or “unsubstantiality.” However, it can also refer to a region of the sky, and it can resemble the spirit of a rational being. More generically, it can refer to air, courage, vanity, cool, or even a tempest. From there, we can move into some of the variants and implied meanings, but I’ll spare us that exercise for now. Each one of our sample words listed above (spirit, ghost, god, angel) are similarly complex and expansive.

Okay, so what’s the point in emphasizing the differences between our languages? What an excellent question – I’m so glad you asked!

Most of us read a translation of the Bible rather than reading the original Hebrew and Greek. Like a cargo ship stopping off at various ports to load and unload cargo, every language acquires and offloads a multitude of nuances, meanings, implications, and context clues over time. This can be a frustrating revelation for those of us who prefer the use of literal definitions of words as our baseline for Biblical study. Much of the literature contained within the Bible is simply not literal, and even the passages which are more literal tend to carry a myriad of social, cultural, and historical nuances.

I’ll use a lighthearted modern example to illustrate. In English, the word “sick” literally refers to an affliction or ailment disrupting the normative, good health of an individual. However, it’s not quite as simple as it sounds, right? We can be literally referring to a physical sickness, or a mental sickness, or, depending on your belief system, even a spiritual sickness. In addition to all of this, “sick” started to be used as a non-literal slang term a few decades back, and rather than the term meaning something bad (as sickness is generally considered to be), it began to be used as a colloquial term meaning something good. Over the past thirty years or so, I’ve watched this slang term grow and morph to adopt many additional meanings and nuances. 

Here’s the point: other languages do the same thing. (I know, shocking!). In fact, E. W. Bullinger took it upon himself about a century ago to compile a modest summary of the Figures of Speech used in the Bible, identifying over 400 unique figures of speech used both in modern English and in ancient languages. He then included a sample list of different verses throughout the Bible which employ the various figures of speech. (If you’re interested in learning more about this topic, check out Figures of Speech Used in the Bible, by E. W. Bullinger). Again, this can be disheartening for those of us who prefer a chiefly literal approach to Scripture, as we must acknowledge that a great portion of the Biblical text is not literal, but in fact figurative.

Now I don’t bring this up to overwhelm us, nor to discourage any of us from reading and studying the Word of God. On the contrary, my hope is that this simple understanding will help to foster a greater appreciation for the original text and language of the Bible – to inspire within us a greater depth of understanding, and a greater desire to rebel against over-simplification or reductionistic theology.

So let’s tie this back into our original question: Do you believe in ghosts? Well, it depends. What do we mean by the word “ghost?” What did the ancient Israelites believe about ghosts? What did the Egyptians believe? Or the Babylonians? Or the Canaanites? What did Jesus’ own disciples believe about ghosts? And just as interesting, where did these ideas come from?

I hope you’ll join us next time as we continue to peel back some of the layers surrounding these questions, as we further unpack the second form of Biblical polytheism.

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 7

Welcome to part 7 of our exploration into the polytheism context clue. Part 6 was a little scholarly and dense, so let’s take a brief step back as we complete our precursory examination of the first form of Biblical polytheism. We will then move on to the second form in next week’s post.

As a reminder/refresher from part 2 of this series, there are at least two forms of Biblical polytheism. The first is the polytheism that kept getting the Israelites into trouble – worshipping other gods, serving idols, forgetting the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. I call this “Biblical polytheism” simply because it appears in the Bible.

The second form of Biblical polytheism evaluates and informs our understanding of the unseen realms, and specifically the role of angels, demons, powers, principalities, rulers of darkness, spiritual forces of wickedness in the heavenly places (Eph. 6:12), and so on. But again, we’ll address this second form next week.

So today, let’s conclude our assessment of the first form by illustrating John Walton’s observation once more. After that, we’ll conclude with a small list of some of the pagan gods the Israelites worshipped as idols (as recorded in the Bible).

John Walton observed that “Like everyone else in the ancient world, the Israelites believed that everything that happened and everything that existed found its ultimate cause in deity.”

Because of this, religion was a central component of every major empire, kingdom, nation and tribe. One of the ways we see this reinforced in scripture is in the naming conventions employed by each people group. Very often, and especially when influential kings and leaders were involved, people were named with a particular designation to honor their god (or one of their gods). For example, consider the Babylonian kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar whose names both start with “Nebo,” as in the god of writing, literacy, and wisdom. There’s also Belshazzar (in Daniel 5) whose name begins with “Bel,” the head of the Babylonian pantheon.

Consider Ashurbanipal, the last “great” king of the Assyrians. What does his name start with? “Ashur,” the supreme god of the Assyrians. Or look at Sennacherib, whose name starts with “Sin,” the Assyrian moon god.

Thutmose, the Egyptian Pharaoh was named for Thoth, the Egyptian god of wisdom and literature, and Amenhotep was named for Amun (sorry, I didn’t include this one in our lists).

Cozy bookstore with bookshelves, reading chairs, and people browsing and reading books

Now if you’ve been around the church for a while, or if you’ve ever read the OT, you’re probably not surprised that the Israelites did the very same thing. Their names almost always held significant meaning, and many times they were directly related to God. Take my namesake, for example: Joel (Jo-el). “Jo” is the English equivalent of “Yo” in Hebrew, and is a shortened version of “Yehovah,” most commonly referred to as “the Lord” in the scriptures. The Israelites wouldn’t use God’s proper name (usually) out of reverence (“Yohd-vev-ha-vev” – or “Yahweh”) so they would either use “Yehovah” to refer to the Lord, or the more generic term “Elohim” to refer to “God” (or a godlike entity). The shortened form of “Elohim” is “El,” like the Canaanite god. So when we fuse these two things together, my name means “The Lord is God.”

Here’s a fun exercise to further illustrate this point. In the book of Daniel, we see four young Israelites taken into captivity, who were then brought to Babylon and instructed/indoctrinated in the ways, language and cultural customs of the Babylonians. During this process, the commander of the officials assigned new names to each of them. 

Daniel, whose name means “Judge of God,” was given the Babylonian name Belteshazzar, which means “Bel’s prince.” Hananiah (“God is gracious”) received the name Shadrach (“Under the command of Aku” – another Babylonian god). Mishael (“Who is like God?”) received Meshach (“Who is like Aku?”). And Azariah (“God is my helper”) received Abednego (“Servant of Nebo”).

Hopefully these few examples help us to better appreciate the centrality of deity and religion within these ancient cultures. Coincidentally, we do the same thing today, although we give our gods different names, and are less obvious about including them in our naming conventions. But I digress.

Let’s finish our exploration of the first form of Biblical polytheism with a few scriptural references you can look up (if you’re so inclined). I’ll only include a short list of the pagan gods worshipped by Israel in 2 Kings (for simplicity’s sake). You can find many more references throughout the OT:

  1. Baal-zebub (2 Kings 1:2)
  2. Baal (2 Kings 3:2)
  3. Rimmon (2 Kings 5:18)
  4. Asherah (2 Kings 13:6)
  5. Ashima (2 Kings 17:30)
  6. Nergal (2 Kings 17:30)
  7. Succoth-Benoth (2 Kings 17:30)
  8. Adrammelech (2 Kings 17:31)
  9. Anammelech (2 Kings 17:31)
  10. Nibhaz (2 Kings 17:31)
  11. Tartak (2 Kings 17:31)
  12. Nisroch (2 Kings 19:37)
  13. Molech (2 Kings 23:10)
  14. Ashtoreth (2 Kings 23:13)
  15. Chemosh (2 Kings 23:13)
Ancient Egyptian scribe kneeling with large to-do list in temple office

Phew. Lot’s of lists, and lots of gods! 

I know it can be a dizzying and daunting task to consider all of these factors, but I’m convinced it’s worth the effort. When we take the time to consider and appreciate the “commonplace” world of the ancient Israelites, we can begin to make more sense of the “troublesome” passages we find in the OT. For example, did God ever really command the Israelites to murder and genocide the Canaanites? Probably not. The Israelites were simply following the forms and traditions of the cultures and pantheons surrounding them – attributing their violence as a command from God if they won, and attributing their losses to the anger and wrath, or punishment of God. Again, these are very common beliefs and assumptions within the polytheistic religions of the people historically surrounding Israel. When we add this to the myriad of OT passages explicitly forbidding violence and genocide (and hence, revealing the heart of God to be consistent with the heart of Jesus as seen in the NT), it seems obvious. I recognize this is an over-simplified response to the question, and some people might disagree.

That’s fine. It’s just an example and a practical way for us to apply some of the contextual insights we’ve been exploring around the subject of Biblical polytheism. 

And with that, I think we can finally “close the page” on the first form of Biblical polytheism. Now, let’s take a look at the second form!

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 6

Yes, you found me out. This was originally an idea for an essay, which I’ve taken and broken down into smaller, blog-sized morsels. Hopefully you’ve been enjoying this series? Feel free to leave a comment, like and/or subscribe. You’ll find links to all of these things at the bottom of each post, along with an option to donate, and a few links to recent posts. 

Here is part 6 of our exploration into the polytheism context clue. If you’re joining us for the first time, I’d suggest going back and reading the earlier parts of this series in order to better understand today’s post.

We’ve compiled some short lists of the culturally significant pantheons of the nations, tribes, ethnic groups and kingdoms surrounding the ancient Israelites, and we’ve briefly identified a few commonalities between these different religions so as to appreciate the theological landscape surrounding the ancient Israelites a little bit better.

I made a reference to John Walton in the previous post, citing his observation that “Like everyone else in the ancient world, the Israelites believed that everything that happened and everything that existed found its ultimate cause in deity.”

But where did this belief come from? 

There are several ways we could answer this question, but I think at least a part (maybe a large part) of the answer comes down the cultural beliefs and values of the world around them. In other words, Israel was heavily influenced by the religions and theology of the empires, kingdoms, nations and tribes surrounding them, and this influence undoubtedly penetrated into their own customs and practices. But to what extent?

To address this question, I’m going to reference John Walton once more. Mr. Walton is a Ph.D. and Old Testament scholar, who has written and contributed to several scholarly resources, such as the IVP Bible Background Commentary: Old Testament, and of particular interest to today’s discussion, Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. This is an excellent book in my opinion, and one I would heartily recommend with one disclaimer: Mr. Walton writes at a scholarly level, and this book is essentially formatted like a doctoral dissertation. With that being said, it is also packed with fantastic information regarding the literature, religions and people of the ancient near east.

In the opening chapter of the book, Walton introduces the concept of “comparative studies,” which I will over-simplify as “the process of comparing similar or contemporary cultures in order to learn more about one or both cultures.” At the end of the chapter, he outlines an excellent list of ten principles of comparative study, which I will list below. Bear these principles in mind any time you compare two groups/cultures, such as the Israelites and the Canaanites, or any of the other groups whose pantheons we’ve been exploring in this series.

  1. Both similarities and differences must be considered.
  2. Similarities may suggest a common cultural heritage or cognitive environment rather than borrowing.
  3. It is not uncommon to find similarities at the surface but differences at the conceptual level, and vice-versa.
  4. All elements must be understood in their own context as accurately as possible before cross-cultural comparisons are made (i.e., careful background study must precede comparative study).
  5. Proximity in time, geography, and spheres of cultural contact all increase the possibility of interaction leading to influence.
  6. A case for literary borrowing requires identification of likely channels of transmission.
  7. The significance of differences between two pieces of literature is minimized if the works are not the same genre.
  8. Similar functions may be performed by different genres in different cultures.
  9. When literary or cultural elements are borrowed they may in turn be transformed into something quite different by those who borrowed them.
  10. A single culture will rarely be monolithic, either in contemporary cross-section or in consideration of a passage of time.

I suspect this book was written in part to answer the over-enthusiastic reductionists who claim that primacy in chronology equates to primacy in authority (in the case of religious texts), and that all subsequent texts are merely variations on the primary (first) source. If you or someone you know ascribes to such a view, I recommend reading Walton’s book in its entirety.

Cup of coffee with latte art, croissant, and pastry on a wooden table with a small potted plant

For the purposes of our theme in this series, however, I think these ten principles create an excellent filter by which to effectively answer our earlier question: how heavily/directly were the Israelites influenced by the surrounding people and cultures of the day? To borrow terminology from Walton, how much was borrowed, and how much was coincidental based on a common cultural heritage or cognitive environment? 

As we filter our question through the ten principles (especially number 4), hopefully you’ll begin to appreciate the enormity of our task. In an earlier post I mentioned that questions like these deserve hundreds, if not thousands, of hours of research in order to answer them effectively. With that in mind, I hope you’ll accept a simple answer to our question: “I’m not sure.” 

Even without access to the Bible, it would be a reasonable conclusion to make that the Israelites were not monolithic. In other words, they were influenced by the surrounding cultures. And as it just so happens, we do have the Bible, and we do see plenty of examples of the Israelites borrowing cultural practices and superstitions from the surrounding nations. However, Walton also offers the following assurance: “Just as it would be foolish to think that all Europeans share the same culture, it would be a mistake to suppose that Babylonians, Hittites, Egyptians, Israelites, and Sumerians all shared the same culture.”

In other words, every people group has their own unique culture comprised of several (or many) unique factors. 

This tension between the assimilated ideologies and practices of the polytheistic nations surrounding Israel and the one true God who was trying to build a genuine relationship with His chosen people helps to explain a lot of the confusing and seemingly contradictory passages in the Old Testament. 

So where does that leave us? Are there any actionable insights we can offer at this time? Of course! As a general rule, if an OT passage looks and sounds like Jesus (revealed in the NT), there’s a good chance that it’s an accurate picture of God, or an accurate transcription of something he instructed the Israelites to do. If an OT passage looks and sounds like the polytheistic beliefs and practices of the pagan nations surrounding Israel, there’s a good chance it’s not God, or not an accurate transcription of something God told the Israelites to do.

Alright, now that we’ve cleared that all up, let’s take a final assessment of the first form of Biblical polytheism, and then move on to the second.

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 5

Yes, that right. This is part 5 of the polytheism context clue. If you’re joining us for the first time, you may be terribly confused. I suggest going back to read parts 1, 2, 3 & 4 first. It will make a lot more sense of today’s discussion.

In the previous posts, we’ve compiled a few short lists of the culturally significant pantheons of the nations, tribes, ethnic groups and kingdoms surrounding the Israelites, both during their centuries in Egypt and Canaan, but also during their centuries of captivity under the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Using these lists, we can begin explore some of the commonalities between these different religions and appreciate the theological landscape of the ancient Israelites a little better.

Sadly, I’ll only be able to make a single observation before having to go on an adjacent tangent. You’ll see what I mean in a moment.

First observation: each pantheon consists of gods who are believed to rule over specific things, and one of the proper ways to worship each of these gods was to acknowledge their blessing (when things went well) or the withholding of their blessing (when things went poorly). Worshippers would pray to the gods for blessings, believing their own successes and failures to then be the result of the petitioners’ quality and ability to please the god in question.

For example, say I’m a farmer and my livelihood depends on a good harvest this year. I might pray to Isis or Bastet if I’m Egyptian; Asherah, Baal, Astarte, or Dagon if I’m Canaanite; Tartak if I’m Avvite; Tarhun, Telepinu, or Shaushka if I’m Hittite; Ishtar, Adad, or Ninurta if I’m Assyrian; Ishtar or Adad if I’m Babylonian; Anahita or Tishtrya if I’m Persian; or Demeter or Ceres if I’m Greek or Roman.

If it’s a bumper-crop at this year’s harvest, I thank the appropriate god (see above) and show my thanks by offering back to them a certain percentage of my harvest. If I harvested grain, I would offer some grain. If I harvested oil, I would offer some oil. And so on.

Now let’s consider a different scenario. Let’s say I’m a king (or equivalent leader of my people), and I’m going into battle with another army (or family/whatever). I might want to petition for the favor of my war god, be it Anat, Adrammelech, Arinna, Shaushka, Jarri, Ishtar, Ninurta, Nergal, Verethragna, Athena, Minerva, Ares, or Mars. 

As in our example above, I would show appropriate thanksgiving to my god (if our battle was victorious). Our people would write stories and sing songs about our war god, making sure to emphasize how much greater and more powerful they are than the war gods of our opponents. The war gods love blood and gore and conquest – a battlefield filled with the corpses of our enemies makes them happy. They drink the blood of our enemies and eat their flesh. (It’s a bit gruesome for us in our twenty-first century context, but for them, this was normal). We would know that our gods had blessed, and even commanded this bloodshed because they blessed us with the victory.

But if we lost (and any of us survived), it’s nothing but woes and lamentations. Surely our gods didn’t want us to go into battle. Perhaps we did something wrong and they withheld their blessing when we needed it most.

Here comes the kicker. To quote John Walton, “Like everyone else in the ancient world, the Israelites believed that everything that happened and everything that existed found its ultimate cause in deity.”

Good harvest this year? God did it. Drought this year? God did it. We developed a new form of literature, or a new musical instrument? God did it. We slaughtered a bunch of men, women, and children? God did it.

This is jarring to us because it’s not the way we think or live (for the most part) in the modern day. The reality of these things is that God has ordered creation so as to self-sustain, providing rain and sunshine, fertilizer and so on, but it is the farmer who partners in the work of tilling the fields, planting the seeds, cultivating the plants and harvesting the rewards in due time. And in the case of “glorious” victory in combat, it might just be the case that the stronger force with the better fighters and superior equipment often wins. (I know, it’s mind-blowing, right?)

Are there ever exceptions? Undoubtedly. But no system of belief should be based on the occasional exception. The exception is not the rule, and the rule is not the exception. 

What am I suggesting? I’m suggesting that Israel, like every other nation and tribe around them, thought the supernatural forces (God, the gods, spirits, angels/demons) were causing, controlling, and determining every detail of every person’s life (and indeed, all of creation).

That’s one of the reasons they struggled so much in their attempts to understand God. They followed the “usual” customs of sacrifices and offerings (Raising livestock? Sacrifice some of those suckers. Growing wheat? Offer some of that to God.), but God doesn’t delight in the blood of animals (Is. 1:11; Hos. 6:6) or other physical offerings. He’s NOT like these other “gods.”

The other gods demand bloodshed and strange ritual worship and burnt offerings, and a hundred other things. But God is not like them. The other gods are derived from human imagination and take on the pettiness and vanity of mankind. But God is not like them. The other gods are pantheons, who really aren’t that jealous of each other, and don’t mind you worshipping other gods at the same time. But God is not like them.

Israel had been heavily influenced by the cultures and customs of the world around them, and it undoubtedly penetrated into their own customs and practices. But to what extent?

This is where we must pause in order to explore an incredibly relevant question: how much was Israel influenced by the world around them, and what impact does that have on us today? 

We’ll explore this question in the next post!

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 4

Welcome to part 4 of the polytheism context clue. If you’re just joining us, we’ve been exploring the idea that developing a clear understanding of Biblical and historical polytheism will help us to peel back some of the troublesome layers of ancient Israel’s history and literature. I would suggest going back to read parts 1, 2 & 3 in preparation for this post.

Last week, we began to explore a few of the culturally significant pantheons of the nations, tribes, ethnic groups and kingdoms surrounding the Israelites during their centuries of time in Egypt, and later Canaan. Today, we will conduct a similar exploration of the culturally significant pantheons of the conquering kingdoms and empires of Israel’s captivity: the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Here we go!

Assyria: In their early history, Assyrians placed a heavy emphasis on local deities (patron gods of various cities, for example), but they also absorbed a lot of deities from other people groups, such as the Canaanites and the Hittites. As the Assyrian empire expanded, they heavily adopted Sumerian and Babylonian gods, elevating them alongside their own most venerable deities. As a result, this list below will include many cross-overs with the other lists.

  1. Ashur/Assur – the supreme god of the Assyrians. He was worshipped as the lord of the whole heavens.
  2. Mullissu – the wife of Ashur. She was a major mother goddess.
  3. Ishtar – goddess of war, love, and fertility. She was crucial to the Assyrian identity and was often invoked by kings in battle.
  4. Nabu/Nebo – the god of wisdom, writing, and literacy. He was the son of Marduk (the Babylonian god), but held a very high status in the Assyrian pantheon.
  5. Sin (or Nanna) – the god of the moon, astronomy, and time.
  6. Shamash (or Utu) – the sun god responsible for justice, law, and truth.
  7. Adad (or Ramman) – the storm and rain god, crucial for agriculture, but also feared for destruction.
  8. Ninurta (or Ninip) – a major god of war, hunting, and farming.
  9. Nergal – god of death, plague, and the Underworld. Nergal was also associated with war.

Babylon: similar to Assyria, the Babylonian pantheon also included older Sumerian-derived gods, but retained their own unique creation myth (Enuma Elish) and pantheon. Here’s a condensed list of some of the popular/well-known Babylonian deities:

  1. Marduk (or Bel) – the patron god of Babylon, he was elevated to the head of the pantheon for defeating Tiamat. He is often depicted as the creator of humanity and the champion of order.
  2. Ishtar (or Inanna) – the goddess of sexual love, fertility, and war.
  3. Ea (or Enki) – the god of wisdom, magic, and sweet waters. He was often depicted as a clever protector of humanity.
  4. Nabu/Nebo – the son of Marduk and the patron of writing, literacy, and wisdom.
  5. Shamash (or Utu) – the sun god responsible for justice, law, and truth.
  6. Sin (or Nanna) – the god of the moon, astronomy, and time.
  7. Nergal – god of death, plague, and the Underworld. Nergal was also associated with war.
  8. Adad (or Ishkur) – the storm god, responsible for thunder, lightning, and rain.
  9. Tiamat – the primordial goddess of the salt sea, who represents chaos, and was defeated by Marduk in the creation epic (Enuma Elish).

Persia: their pantheon is found primarily in Zoroastrian and earlier Iranian traditions. On the surface level, the Persian pantheon seems to revolve around a dualistic struggle between good and evil, but contrary to some classifications, their pantheon fully qualifies them as a polytheistic religion. Here are a few of the popular/well-known Persian deities:

  1. Ahura Mazda– the supreme god of wisdom and the sky. The creator of the universe, Ahura Mazda represents truth and light.
  2. Angra Mainyu (or Ahriman) – the destructive spirit, embodying chaos, lies, and evil.
  3. Mithra (or Mihr) – god of light, covenant, contract, and the rising sun.
  4. Anahita – the goddess of fertility, healing, wisdom, and water.
  5. Atar – the son of Ahura Mazda, and the personification of divine fire. A crucial element in rituals.
  6. Verethragna (or Bahram) – the warrior god of victory, who aids the righteous in their battle against evil.
  7. Tishtrya – a deity associated with rain, agriculture, and fertility, often battling drought.
  8. Rashnu – a divine judge who determines the fate of souls after death.
  9. Vayu-Vata – The deity of the wind and atmosphere.

Greece/Rome: the major Roman deities were heavily influenced by Greek mythology, and revolved around the twelve olympians (Greek) or the Consentes Dii (Roman). While there are variations and nuance between the two, they’re similar enough that for this post, I’ll treat them as the same, placing the Greek name first and the Roman name second. As always, feel free to conduct additional research of your own. This is not a comprehensive list, simply a useful starting point:

  1. Zeus (Jupiter) – king of the gods, sky, lightning (and thunder), and justice.
  2. Hera (Juno) – queen of the gods, wife of Zeus, and goddess of marriage, childbirth, women, and family.
  3. Poseidon (Neptune) – god of the sea, earthquakes, and horses.
  4. Athena (Minerva) – the goddess of wisdom, handicraft, and strategic war.
  5. Apollo (Apollo) – the god of music, poetry, prophecy, light, and the sun.
  6. Artemis (Diana) – the goddess of the hunt, wilderness, and the moon.
  7. Aphrodite (Venus) – the goddess of love, beauty, and desire.
  8. Hermes (Mercury) – messenger of the gods, god of commerce, thieves, and travelers.
  9. Ares (Mars) – god of war, violence, and bloodshed.
  10. Hephaestus (Vulcan) – god of fire, metallurgy, and craftsmanship.
  11. Demeter (Ceres) – goddess of agriculture, harvest, and fertility.
  12. Hestia/Dionysus (only Greek) – Hestia was the goddess of hearth and home; she was replaced as an olympian by Dionysus, the god of wine and theater.
  13. Janus (only Roman) – god of beginnings, endings, transitions, and doorways.
  14. Hades (Pluto) – king of the Underworld and ruler of the dead; brother to Zeus and Poseidon.

You’ll notice I’ve made no mention of the Eastern pantheons in these lists, nor of the Norse pantheon, or even of the various African pantheons (apart from Egypt). There are two reasons for these omissions: 1) the omitted people groups and pantheons weren’t as directly influential in shaping Israel’s culture and beliefs in the same way the ones we’ve listed were, and 2) these lists are already long enough to prove my original points regarding Israel’s exposure to various polytheistic religions, and the inevitable influence that prolonged proximity with (and assimilation of) these religious constructions will have had on the nation of Israel.

Now that we have a modest collection of lists to work with, we can begin to explore some of the commonalities between these different religions and appreciate the theological landscape of the ancient Israelites a little better.

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 3

The Egyptian Sun God "Ra"

Welcome to part 3 of the polytheism context clue. If you’re just joining us, we’ve been exploring the claim that developing a clear understanding of Biblical and historical polytheism will help us to peel back some of the troublesome layers of ancient Israel’s history and literature. I would suggest going back to read parts 1 & 2 so as to understand the premise and tone.

With no further adieu let’s take a brief, high-level, look at some of the major national and cultural pantheons that surrounded and saturated ancient Israel.

Egypt: had a long list of deities in their pantheon, and the list of the most popular deities shifted throughout their history, depending on whether it was during the old kingdom, new kingdom, or some other era. Here are some of their most popular/well-known deities:

  1. Ra – the supreme sun god, considered the creator and the first pharaoh. He was central to Egyptian cosmology, traveling across the sky daily.
  2. Osiris – lord of the Underworld and judge of the dead. He represents death, resurrection, and fertility. He was crucial to the belief in the afterlife.
  3. Isis – goddess of magic, motherhood and fertility. She was the wife of Osiris and the mother of Horus.
  4. Horus – falcon-headed god of sky and light. He represented the living Pharaoh, and kingship, fighting against the forces of chaos.
  5. Anubis – jackal-headed god of embalming, and the guardian of the dead. He guided souls to the afterlife and oversaw the weighing of the heart.
  6. Set (Seth) – god of chaos, storms, and the desert. While a rival to Horus and Osiris, he was necessary for balance.
  7. Thoth – god of wisdom, writing, hieroglyphs, and science. Often depicted with an Ibis head, he was the scribe of the gods.
  8. Hathor – goddess of love, beauty, music, and drunkenness, often represented as a cow or a woman with cow ears.
  9. Bastet – cat-headed goddess of the home, fertility, and protection.
  10. Ptah – patron god of craftsmen, architects, and other creative trades.
  11. Ma’at – goddess of truth, balance, and cosmic order, essential for maintaining the universe.
El, the "father of gods"

Canaan: was a melting-pot region of many ethnic people groups, families, tribes and kingdoms. These include many of the groups frequently listed in the Bible (Hivites, Jebusites, Philistines, Moabites, Sepharvites, and so on). Most of these shared a dominant pantheon, although many of the individual groups had either additional gods, or else held a set of deities in higher veneration than others. Here’s a condensed list of some of the popular/well-known Canaanite deities (which we know about thanks to the Ugaritic texts):

  1. El (or Ilu) – the elderly, wise, “gray-beard” supreme head of the pantheon, known as the creator and father of gods and humankind.
  2. Asherah (or Athirat) – wife of El and the mother of many deities, often associated with fertility, trees and sacred poles.
  3. Baal (or Hadad) – the popular storm god (“Lord of the Land”) who brought rain and fertility. He was often portrayed as a warrior battling chaos.
  4. Anat – the sister-consort of Baal, a fierce war goddess and protector who often displayed violent power.
  5. Astarte – a fertility and war goddess
  6. Mot – the god of death, drought, and sterility, representing the desert, Mot was considered the enemy of Baal.
  7. Yam (or Nahar) – the god of sea and chaos, defeated by Baal in a battle for sovereignty.
  8. Resheph – the god of plague, pestilence, and healing.
  9. Shapshu – the sun goddess who served as a mediator between gods, sometimes known as Shamosh (or Chemosh) in other Canaanite regions.
  10. Dagon – a fertility and vegetation god associated with agriculture.
Baal, the storm god

In addition to this list, there are a few other “honorable mentions” that show up in the Bible. A few of these include:

  1. Adrammelech – Sepharvite god of war and love.
  2. Anammelech – Sepharvite god demanding child sacrifice
  3. Molech (or Moloch) – national god of the Amonites and Moabites, whose worship involved human (often child) sacrifice.
  4. Nergal – the Cuthite god of death and the Underworld.
  5. Rimmon – god of Aram responsible for thunder, lightning and rain.
  6. Tartak – the Avvite god(des) of fertility.
Tarhun (Hittite supreme king of the gods)
Tarhun (Hittite supreme king of the gods)

Hittite: while many of the smaller tribes, nations, clans and kingdoms share a central pantheon, others had a full pantheon of their own, such as the Hittites.

  1. Tarhun/Tarhunnara – the supreme king of the gods, ruler of heaven, thunder, and lightning. He is often depicted as holding a lightning bolt and axes, ensuring agricultural fertility and maintaining order
  2. Arinna/Arinniti/Istanu – the principal consort of Tarhun. As the supreme solar deity, she governed sovereignty, justice, and the protection of the Hittite empire.
  3. Telepinu – son of Tarhun and Arinna, and god of fertility.
  4. Inara – daughter of Tarhun, and the goddess of wild animals and the steppe.
  5. Hannahannah – a creator goddess and advisor to the other gods.
  6. Kumarbi (or A’as) – father of the gods, who was overthrown by Tarhun.
  7. Shaushka (or Ishtar) – goddess of love, war, and fertility.
  8. Jarri – a plague god, sometimes associated with military destruction and warfare.

I’ve left a lot off of these lists, as you may have noticed. My hope is not to provide you with a comprehensive list of the deities and pantheons worshipped in and around the lands of Egypt and Canaan, but rather to give a brief sampling so as to show what the dominant cultural views and traditions were which surrounded the nation of Israel during its time in these lands. We’ll continue this exploration in the next post by looking at some of the significant pantheons surrounding Israel (and Judah) during their various seasons of captivity. Most of these cultures were also influencing the Israelites much earlier, but the effect was amplified in captivity.

As you begin to review these lists, I’d encourage you to look for commonalities and trends. For instance, what similarities do you find between the Egyptian gods, Ra and Set, and the Canaanite gods, El and Yam? What similarities do you find between the types of domains represented in each pantheon? (For example: fertility, love, war, storms, chaos, etc.)

I hope you’ll join us for the next part as we explore some of the major deities of the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks and Romans. From there, we’ll begin to explore some of the implications surrounding Israel’s prolonged proximity to, and assimilation of, these polytheistic beliefs.

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 2

Welcome to part 2 of the polytheism context clue. In the previous post, I made the claim that developing a clear understanding of Biblical and historical polytheism will help us to peel back some of the troublesome layers of ancient Israel’s history and literature.

So what do I mean by that?

Well, depending on your perspective, the Old Testament (OT) presents one or more problematic images of God, and of His chosen people, Israel.

Everyone who reads the OT in its entirety will agree on one point: the Israelites did not have a great track record when it came to honoring God, honoring creation, and fulfilling their part of the covenant (Abrahamic OR Mosaic).

Beyond that, opinions vary. However, there are a large number of people who read the Bible who would agree that there are several more problematic images of God portrayed in the OT. Some of these are passages where the Israelites (or their leaders) attribute their gruesome violence to the glory of God. Other passages make it seem as though God Himself is condoning, or even commanding savage violence. Other passages yet seem to portray God as commanding or reveling in animal sacrifice, or otherwise relishing in the unraveling of His good creation. 

So what’s up with that?

The truth is that this is a deceptive question. It’s quick and easy to ask, so we instinctively think it should be quick and easy to answer.

It’s not.

But how do you eat a blue whale? One bite at a time.

One of the bites that can help us better understand the Scriptures and the ancient Israelites is the context clue of ancient polytheism.

Now when I use the word “polytheism,” you might immediately think of Percy Jackson and the Lightning Thief, or some other modern adaptation of ancient mythology.

Is that an accurate interpretation? Well, it depends.

Usually, when people think of polytheism, they take the literal definition (“many gods”) and picture the Greek (or maybe Roman) pantheon as a model for all polytheistic worldviews. Some of these may determine a hierarchy to their pantheon where certain gods are stronger or weaker, worthy of more or less veneration. Others view these as roughly equivalent deities worthy of equal veneration. 

In my opinion, there are two forms of Biblical polytheism. The first is the polytheism that kept getting the Israelites into trouble – worshipping other gods, serving idols, forgetting the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. I call this “Biblical polytheism” simply because it appears in the Bible.

There is a second form of Biblical polytheism from which we can learn much about human nature and psychology, both past and present, but we’ll discuss this second form in an upcoming post.

First, let’s take some time to better understand the major religious and cultural influences that weighed on the ancient Israelites and influenced their way of thinking.

Abraham was called out of the land of Ur. He then uprooted his life and moved to Canaan. A few generations passed by before Joseph was sold into slavery in Egypt. Because of God’s favor, Joseph was later raised to the second-highest rank in all of Egypt, second only to the Pharaoh. Through a series of events, Joseph’s entire family (the descendants of Abraham) moved to Egypt.

Time passed (four centuries, or so) and things had gotten bad for the Israelites. God raised up Moses and Aaron, and delivered the Israelites out of Egypt. Eventually, they entered the land of Canaan (again), but were surrounded and saturated by Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Canaanites, Jebusites, Hivites, Midianites, Amalekites, and Philistines. In addition to this, the Israelites were eventually conquered by the Assyrians, Babylonians, Medes, Persians, Greeks, and Romans.

This is only a partial list, but it already proves my point, which is that the Israelites were completely surrounded by, steeped in, and comfortable with polytheistic religions, despite the fact that God very clearly informed them: “the Lord, your God, is one God,” and “you shall serve no other gods before me.” (Deut. 6:4 & Ex. 20:3)

Given Israel’s terrible track-record on these points, we know that they were heavily (and often) influenced by the worldviews and pagan religions surrounding them. 

I hope you’ll join us again next week as we begin to evaluate some of these ancient pantheons and explore some of the ways these may have influenced the Israelites’ beliefs and behaviors. We’ll then move on to examine a different type of Biblical polytheism and how it can be used to elevate our understanding of both ancient and modern psychology.

Context Clues – Polytheism Pt 1

Old Library

Sometimes I find myself reading a passage of Scripture and wondering, “What was that about?” If I’m not careful, I can be tempted to scratch my head and walk away with a resigned shrug.

Maybe you can relate?

This certainly happens when I’m reading in the New Testament, but if I’m being honest, it happens a lot more often when I read in the Old Testament. 

Sometimes these are amusing passages – stories or images that just don’t make sense, but sometimes the passages can be disturbing or even theologically problematic. I’m reminded of the “conquest narrative” outlined in Joshua and surrounding works. These are the passages that recount Israel’s conquest of the Promised Land. Many of the details are gory and vengeful, even dehumanizing at times. 

As a historical narrative, this isn’t particularly troublesome, even if it is a bit… gratuitous. People often do terrible things to people (murders, theft, affairs, genocide, slavery, and so on), so while the historical narrative is sometimes disheartening, it’s really just a description of things that have happened. “Such and such group of people went in and slaughtered such and such group of people, and when they were finished, they gave credit for the bloodshed to their god or gods.”

So far so good.

But then we reach some of these passages where the God of Israel seems to be the One condoning, or even commanding these heinous acts.

What the heck?

For those of us who’ve read the Bible, this jumps out to us like a jarring, distorted portrait of God – the Creator. This is jarring because it looks nothing at all like Jesus, who is “the radiance of [God’s] glory and the exact representation of His nature.” (Heb. 1:3)

So if it doesn’t look like Jesus (i.e. God), then is it really God? Or is there something else going on here?

A lot has been written on the subject, and I’m not looking to resolve the myriad of complex layers and nuance in a single blog post. If this topic bothers you, consider reading Greg Boyd’s The Crucifixion of the Warrior God, or something similar. In my opinion, Boyd does an excellent job of thoroughly identifying and examining the violent depictions of God in the Old Testament. He then outlines what he calls the “Cruciform Hermeneutic,” which encourages readers to interpret all of Scripture through the lens of Jesus, and specifically through His act of self-sacrificial and saving love through the events of the Passion (the arrest, trials, crucifixion and resurrection). 

You may find yourself agreeing or disagreeing with his conclusions, but I think it’s a valuable read nonetheless.

So then, if I’m not looking to provide a comprehensive solution to this problem (which really deserves thousands of pages of scholarly research, at least), then what am I trying to accomplish here?

What I’m hoping to accomplish here is: a starting point.

As with most conundrums, a challenging passage or series of passages can benefit from an exploration of context.

There are many types and forms of context (cultural, historical, geographic, literary, textual, etc.), and each one of these can help us to better understand a given text, situation, or conversation (yes, context an essential component of effective communication – you’re welcome).

There are any number of context clues we could study in order to better understand the Scriptures, and most of these have a mountain of information that’s been written about them. One such example is the subject of polytheism.

Developing a clear understanding of Biblical and historical polytheism will help us to peel back some of the troublesome layers of ancient Israel’s history and literature. 

I hope you’ll join us over the next several weeks as we begin to explore these subjects, and in so doing, building our stockpile of helpful context clues.

He’s Already in the Next Storm

Fishing boat with lights on in stormy ocean with large waves and lightning

The boat was already a long distance from the land, battered by the waves; for the wind was contrary. And in the fourth watch of the night He came to them, walking on the sea… Peter said to Him, “Lord, if it is You, command me to come to You upon the water.” And He said, “Come!” And Peter got out of the boat, and walked on the water and came toward Jesus. But seeing the wind, he became frightened, and beginning to sink, he cried out, “Lord, save me!” Immediately Jesus stretched out His hand and took hold of him, and said to him, “You of little faith, why did you doubt?” (Matt. 14:22-33)

This is one of the great dramatic events recorded in the gospel accounts. Jesus, the great I AM, the author and sustainer of all life, the Creator, goes for a stroll across the lake. But He doesn’t do it in the middle of the day for thousands of roaring fans. He does it in the middle of the night in front of a few of his closest friends. Oh, and it’s during a raging storm, which makes the whole thing so much cooler.

Why did His disciples freak out? Why didn’t they start jumping up and down, cheering for joy when they saw Jesus doing this impossible thing?

For starters, they were superstitious.

Ancient near-eastern cultures (and indeed many other ancient cultures) believed that people who died at sea were cursed. Their spirits would then haunt the waters in search of a final resting place. As with all good superstitions, the effect was amplified at night, leading to many (and I mean many!) stories from people who claimed to see this or that ghost walking along the surface of the water (at night). Jesus walked on the water in the middle of the night as if to confront this superstition head-on. “No, it’s not a ghost. It’s Me.”

But superstition wasn’t the disciples only hurdle to overcome. They lived in a culture heavily influenced by the major national religions and mythos of the Greeks and the Romans and the Babylonians and the Egyptians, and yes, even the myriads of smaller nations and tribes (Hittites, Amorites, Amalekites, Philistines, and so on). One thing these nations all had in common was a polytheistic religion, wherein each culture or group worshipped a pantheon of spirits or “gods” who were in charge of this or that aspect of creation. While it is a fascinating read (perhaps I’ll do a deeper dive in a future blog), the one I want to mention right now is Rahab. Rahab was the personification of chaos and destruction, specifically pertaining to the sea and its deep places. Rahab is sometimes described as a dragon. I like to think of it as a very nasty version of Poseidon.

Curiously, Rahab shows up several times in the Old Testament, and depending on your favorite commentator’s or theologian’s perspective, they might also use “Rahab” interchangeably with “the destroyer” in Exodus, or even “the dragon” in Revelation. Others view this as a name for Satan.

But that’s neither here nor there. What matters is that the ancient Israelites (and every other ancient culture) greatly revered the sea, and any other large body of water, thinking of these as the domain of such and such god or spirit or destructive force. So when God parted the Red Sea in Exodus, it was a bold statement about His authority and power. “What’s that? You’re afraid of Rahab? Watch this.”

I suspect Jesus’ decision to walk on the water was a direct callback to the parting of the Red Sea. Why else would He have chosen to take His leisurely stroll when there was a raging storm afoot? Jesus wanted to prove to His disciples that He – God – was greater than Rahab. Not only Rahab of the peaceful waters, but also Rahab of the raging storm! 

How cool that Peter got to join Him in this “victory lap” over the forces of darkness and destruction (it reminds me a bit of Job, now that I think about it). He does, of course, take his eyes off Jesus, and immediately begins to sink, and I’m sure we’ve all heard dozens of wonderful sermons about that. But one thing that’s always stood out to me about this passage, which I’ve never heard a sermon on, is that Jesus was walking in the storm long before Peter ever joined him.

Let that sink in.

Every storm we’ve ever faced, every trial we’ve ever suffered, every affliction we’ve ever endured… Jesus was there long before we were!

It makes me wonder what storms lie in wait for us, what trials are just around the corner. Whatever they are, we can find confidence in this fact: we don’t have to go through them alone. Jesus is already there, celebrating victory over our next storm.

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Here I Am, Lord

Now there was a certain disciple at Damascus named Ananias; and the Lord said to him in a vision, “Ananias.” And he said, “Here I am, Lord.” And the Lord said to him, “Get up and go to the street called Straight, and inquire at the house of Judas for a man from Tarsus named Saul, for he is praying, and he has seen in a vision a man named Ananias come in and lay his hands on him, so that he might regain his sight.”

But Ananias answered, “Lord, I have heard from many about this man, how much harm he did to Your saints at Jerusalem; and here he has authority from the chief priests to bind all who call on Your name.”

But the Lord said to him, “Go, for he is a chosen instrument of Mine, to bear My name before the Gentiles and kings and the sons of Israel; for I will show him how much he must suffer for My name’s sake.”

So Ananias departed and entered the house, and after laying his hands on him said, “Brother Saul, the Lord Jesus, who appeared to you on the road by which you were coming, has sent me so that you may regain your sight and be filled with the Holy Spirit.” And immediately there fell from his eyes something like scales, and he regained his sight, and he got up and was baptized; and he took food and was strengthened. (Acts 9:10-19a)

We are at once given the impression that Ananias was a man of fervent and frequent prayer. His conversation with God in these verses brings memories of Abraham (Gen. 18) and Moses (Ex. 33:11) and many others.

Three things stand out to me about Ananias’ actions in this passage:

  1. He recognized God’s voice and responded immediately. “Here I am, Lord.” Ananias knew the voice of his Good Shepherd and was quick to announce his readiness and willingness to converse with his Lord.
  2. He conversed with God. “But Ananias answered…” He expressed his incredulity in a respectful manner. If we’re not careful, we can find ourselves exchanging prayer (dialogue) with a monologue. This is often expressed as us telling God all the things we want, but it can also look like us receiving a word from God, but then leaving no room for discussion. “God said it, so I’m doing it. End of story.” While this is a good default, we see from this passage and others like it that God welcomes, and maybe even expects, our questions and dialogues. It is a relationship, after all.
  3. Ananias obeyed. After voicing his concerns and receiving an answer from God, Ananias obeyed. In this case, the gift of obedience was a powerful expression of worship and trust. Ananias knew about Saul, and had heard the news about his persecuting of the church. It took great trust in the word of the Lord to walk in faithfulness and obey His instructions. 

As I consider these three points, I’m struck by how often I struggle with one or more of them. There are times when I’m like the boy, Samuel, who didn’t recognize God’s voice (1 Sam. 3). There are also times when I hear God’s voice, but am slow to respond.

Other times, I fall into the trap of monologuing at God, or failing to truly converse with God, even when that means expressing my concerns with what He’s spoken.

Then there’s the challenge of obedience, which is one we can all relate to. Sometimes God’s instructions are difficult to follow, but every act of obedience or disobedience serves as an indicator of who is the lord of our life. 

Is it God? Is it us? Is it something or someone else?

Sometimes when I read or study about someone like Ananias I can feel disheartened. Here’s this “giant of the faith” showing us what it looks like to experience a rich and powerful prayer life, while the rest of us are struggling along with one or more of the points above. But then I’m reminded of Saul just a few verses earlier (Acts 9:4-9).

This well-educated Jewish religious leader had a very different prayer experience on the road to Damascus. Let’s compare it with the three points from Ananias’ prayer above:

  1. “Who are You, Lord?” (Acts 9:5) Ananias recognized God’s voice and said, “Here I am, Lord,” but Saul didn’t recognize God’s voice, and so he asked, “Who are You, Lord?”
  2. Saul made no response to God’s instruction (Acts 9:8). In other words, he treated this prayer as a monologue, rather than as a dialogue.
  3. Saul did act in obedience, but only after being “arrested” by Jesus on the road, and having his physical sight removed (which scholars and commentators think was meant to reflect his spiritual blindness up this point).

And yet, Saul, who was later known as Paul, went on to become one of the most significant and influential evangelists/apostles within the early church. 

My point is that even Saul got some things wrong; even Saul was human. But God still used him in a powerful way.

He can do the same with you.

He can do the same with me.

My prayer for each of us today is that we would adopt the spirit of Ananias, which is in many ways the spirit of Isaiah. May we learn to recognize the voice of God and to respond immediately: “Here I am, Lord.” May we dialogue with Him, converse with Him. And then may we have the power and faith to walk in obedience.